Cornelia, taking upon herself
all the care of the household and the education of her children, approved
herself so discreet a matron, so affectionate a mother, and so constant and
noble-spirited a widow, that Tiberius seemed to all men to have done nothing
unreasonable, in choosing to die for such a woman; who, when king Ptolemy
himself proffered her his crown, and would have married her, refused it, and
chose rather to live a widow.In this state she continued, and lost all her children,
except one daughter, who was married to Scipio the younger, and two sons,
Tiberius and Caius, whose lives we are now writing.
These she brought
up with such care, that though they were without dispute in natural endowments
and dispositions the first among the Romans of their time, yet they seemed to
owe their virtues even more to their education than to their birth. And as, in the statues and pictures made of
Castor and Pollux, though the brothers resemble one another, yet there is a
difference to be perceived in their countenances, between the one, who
delighted in the cestus, and the other, that was famous in the course, so
between these two noble youths, though there was a strong general likeness in
their common love of fortitude and temperance, in their liberality,
their eloquence, and their
greatness of mind, yet in their actions and administrations of public affairs,
a considerable variation showed itself.
It will not be amiss, before we proceed, to mark the
difference between them.
Tiberius, in the
form and expression of his countenance, and in his gesture and motion, was
gentle and composed; but Caius, earnest and vehement. And so, in their public speeches to the
people, the one spoke in a quiet orderly manner, standing throughout on the
same spot; the other would walk about on the hustings, and in the heat of his
orations, pull his gown off his shoulders, and was the first of all the Romans
that used such gestures; as Cleon is said to have been the first orator among
the Athenians that pulled off his cloak and smote his thigh, when addressing
the people. Caius's oratory was impetuous and passionate, making everything
tell to the utmost, whereas Tiberius was gentle, rather, and persuasive,
awakening emotions of pity. His diction
was pure, and carefully correct, while that of Caius was
vehement and rich. So likewise in their
way of living, and at their tables, Tiberius was frugal and plain, Caius, compared
with other men temperate and even austere, but contrasting with his brother in
a fondness for new fashions and rarities, as appears in Drusus's charge against
him, that he had bought some silver dolphins, to the value of twelve hundred
and fifty drachmas for every pound weight.
The same
difference that appeared in their diction, was observable
also in their tempers. The one was mild
and reasonable, the other rough and passionate, and to that degree, that often,
in the midst of speaking, he was so hurried away by his passion, against his
judgment, that his voice lost its tone, and he began to pass into mere abusive talking,
spoiling his whole speech. As a remedy
to this excess, he made use of an ingenious servant of his, one Licinius, who
stood constantly behind him with a sort of pitch-pipe, or instrument to
regulate the voice by, and whenever he perceived his master's tone alter, and
break with anger, he struck a soft note with his pipe, on hearing which, Caius
immediately checked the vehemence of his passion and his voice, grew quieter,
and allowed himself to be recalled to temper.
Such are the differences between the two brothers; but their valor in
war against their country's enemies, their justice in the government of its
subjects, their care and industry in office, and their self-command in all that
regarded their pleasures were equally remarkable in both.
Tiberius was the elder by nine years; owing
to which their actions as public men were divided by the difference of the times
in which those of the one and those of the other were performed. And one of the principal causes of the
failure of their enterprises was this interval between their careers, and the
want of combination of their efforts.
The power they would have exercised, had they flourished both together, could
scarcely have failed to overcome all resistance. We must therefore give an account of each of
them singly, and first of the eldest.
. . .
This young
Tiberius, accordingly, serving in Africa under the younger Scipio, who had
married his sister, and living there under the same tent with him, soon learned
to estimate the noble spirit of his commander, which was so fit to inspire strong
feelings of emulation in virtue and desire to prove merit in action, and in a
short time he excelled all the young men of the army in obedience and courage;
and he was the first that mounted the enemy's wall, as Fannius says, who writes,
that he himself climbed up with him, and was partaker in the achievement. He was regarded, while he continued with the
army, with great affection; and left behind him on his departure a strong
desire for his return.
After that
expedition, being chosen paymaster, it was his fortune to serve in the war
against the Numantines, under the command of Caius Mancinus, the consul, a
person of no bad character, but the most unfortunate of all the Roman generals. Notwithstanding, amidst the greatest
misfortunes, and in the most unsuccessful enterprises, not only the discretion
and valor of Tiberius, but also, which was still more to be admired, the great
respect and honor which he showed for his general, were most eminently
remarkable; though the general himself, when reduced to straits, forgot his own
dignity and office. For being beaten in
various great battles, he endeavored to dislodge by night, and leave his camp;
which the Numantines perceiving, immediately possessed themselves of his camp,
and pursuing that part of
the forces which was in flight,
slew those that were in the rear, hedged the whole army in on every side, and
forced them into difficult ground, whence there could be no possibility of an
escape. Mancinus, despairing to make his
way through by force, sent a messenger to desire a truce, and conditions of
peace. But they refused to give their
confidence to any one except Tiberius, and required that he should be sent to treat
with them. This was not only in regard
to the young man's own character, for he had a great reputation amongst the
soldiers, but also in remembrance of his father Tiberius, who, in his command
against the Spaniards, had reduced great numbers of them to
subjection, but granted a peace to the Numantines, and prevailed upon the
Romans to keep it punctually and inviolably.
Tiberius was
accordingly dispatched to the enemy, whom he persuaded to accept of several
conditions, and he himself complied with others; and by this means it is beyond
a question, that he saved twenty thousand of the Roman citizens, besides
attendants and camp followers. However, the
Numantines retained possession
of all the property they had found and plundered in the encampment; and amongst
other things were Tiberius's books of accounts, containing the whole
transactions of his quaestorship, which he was extremely anxious to
recover. And therefore, when the army were
already upon their march, he returned to Numantia, accompanied with only three
or four of his friends; and making his application to the officers of the
Numantines, he entreated that they would return him his books, lest his enemies
should have it in their power to reproach him with not being able to give an
account of the monies entrusted to him.
The Numantines joyfully embraced this opportunity of obliging him, and
invited him into the city; as he stood hesitating, they came up and took him by
the hands, and begged that he would no longer look upon them as enemies, but believe
them to be his friends, and treat them as such. Tiberius thought it well to
consent, desirous as he was to
have his books returned, and was afraid lest he should disoblige them by showing any distrust. As soon as he entered into the city, they first offered him food, and made every kind of entreaty that he would sit down and eat something in their company. Afterwards they returned his books, and gave him the liberty to take whatever he wished for in the remaining spoils. He, on the other hand, would accept of nothing but some frankincense, which he used in his public sacrifices, and, bidding them farewell with every expression of kindness, departed.
When he returned
to
Of the land which the Romans gained by conquest from their neighbours, part they sold publicly, and turned the remainder into common; this common land they assigned to such of the citizens as were poor and indigent, for which they were to pay only a small acknowledgment into the public treasury. But when the wealthy men began to offer larger rents, and drive the poorer people out, it was enacted by law that no person whatever should enjoy more than five hundred acres of ground. This act for some time checked the avarice of the richer, and was of great assistance to the poorer people, who retained under it their respective proportions of ground, as they had been formerly rented by them. Afterwards the rich men of the neighbourhood contrived to get these lands again into their possession, under other people's names, and at last would not stick to claim most of them publicly in their own. The poor, who were thus deprived of their farms, were no longer either ready, as they had formerly been, to serve in war or careful in the education of their children; insomuch that in a short time there were comparatively few freemen remaining in all Italy, which swarmed with workhouses full of foreign-born slaves. These the rich men employed in cultivating their ground of which they dispossessed the citizens. Caius Laelius, the intimate friend of Scipio, undertook to reform this abuse; but meeting with opposition from men of authority, and fearing a disturbance, he soon desisted, and received the name of the Wise or the Prudent, both which meanings belong to the Latin word Sapiens.
But Tiberius, being elected tribune of the people, entered upon that design without delay, at the instigation, as is most commonly stated, of Diophanes, the rhetorician, and Blossius, the philosopher. Diophanes was a refugee from Mitylene, the other was an Italian, of the city of Cuma, and was educated there under Antipater of Tarsus, who afterwards did him the honour to dedicate some of his philosophical lectures to him.
Some have also charged Cornelia, the mother
of Tiberius, with contributing towards it, because she frequently upbraided her
sons, that the Romans as yet rather called her the daughter of Scipio, than the
mother of the Gracchi. Others again say that Spurius Postumius was the chief
occasion. He was a man of the same age with Tiberius, and his rival for
reputation as a public speaker; and when Tiberius, at his return from the
campaign, found him to have got far beyond him in fame and influence, and to be
much looked up to, he thought to outdo him, by attempting a popular enterprise
of this difficulty and of such great consequence. But his brother Caius has
left it us in writing, that when Tiberius went through
However, he did not draw up his law without the advice and assistance of those citizens that were then most eminent for their virtue and authority; amongst whom were Crassus, the high-priest, Mucius Scaevola, the lawyer, who at that time was consul, and Claudius Appius, his father-in-law. Never did any law appear more moderate and gentle, especially being enacted against such great oppression and avarice. For they who ought to have been severely punished for trangressing the former laws, and should at least have lost all their titles to such lands which they had unjustly usurped, were notwithstanding to receive a price for quitting their unlawful claims, and giving up their lands to those fit owners who stood in need of help. But though this reformation was managed with so much tenderness that, all the former transactions being passed over, the people were only thankful to prevent abuses of the like nature for the future, yet, on the other hand, the moneyed men, and those of great estates, were exasperated, through their covetous feelings against the law itself, and against the lawgiver, through anger and party-spirit. They therefore endeavoured to seduce the people, declaring that Tiberius was designing a general redivision of lands, to overthrow the government, and cut all things into confusion.
But they had no success. For Tiberius, maintaining an honourable and just cause, and possessed of eloquence sufficient to have made a less creditable action appear plausible, was no safe or easy antagonist, when, with the people crowding around the hustings, he took his place, and spoke in behalf of the poor. "The savage beasts," said he, "in Italy, have their particular dens, they have their places of repose and refuge; but the men who bear arms, and expose their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy in the meantime nothing more in it but the air and light and, having no houses or settlements of their own, are constrained to wander from place to place with their wives and children." He told them that the commanders were guilty of a ridiculous error, when, at the head of their armies, they exhorted the common soldiers to fight for their sepulchres and altars; when not any amongst so many Romans is possessed of either altar or monument, neither have they any houses of their own, or hearths of their ancestors to defend. They fought indeed and were slain, but it was to maintain the luxury and the wealth of other men. They were styled the masters of the world, but in the meantime had not one foot of ground which they could call their own.
An harangue of this nature, spoken to an enthusiastic and sympathizing audience, by a person of commanding spirit and genuine feelings, no adversaries at that time were competent to oppose.